India: 1857 to 1947 – The Struggle for Freedom

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The span between 1857 and 1947 is one of the most defining periods in Indian history. It encapsulates the relentless efforts of Indian freedom fighters and the oppressive measures taken by British colonizers. The journey from the first organized uprising to attaining independence was marked by a series of socio-political movements, legislative changes, and sacrifices that shaped India’s destiny.

The Revolt of 1857: The First War of Independence

The revolt of 1857 was a pivotal moment in Indian history, representing the first large-scale resistance against British rule.
Causes of the Revolt

Economic Exploitation: The British drained India’s wealth through unfair taxation, commercialization of agriculture, and the ruin of artisans.
Social Discontent: Introduction of reforms such as the Widow Remarriage Act (1856), which was perceived as interference in traditional practices.
Religious Offenses: Use of greased cartridges with cow and pig fat offended both Hindus and Muslims.
Military Grievances: Indian soldiers faced discrimination, low pay, and lack of promotions compared to their British counterparts.

Key Events
- Meerut Spark: Revolt began when Mangal Pandey refused to use the cartridges and was hanged.
- Spread to Delhi: The rebels declared Bahadur Shah Zafar as the emperor.
- Role of Leaders: Rani Lakshmibai, Tantia Tope, Nana Sahib, and Kunwar Singh led resistance in various regions.
- Suppression: British forces brutally quelled the uprising by 1858.
Impact

Though unsuccessful, it marked the beginning of the nationalistic struggle, leading to the dissolution of the East India Company and establishment of direct British Crown rule through the Government of India Act (1858).

Rise of Organized Nationalism: Formation of Indian National Congress

Establishment of the INC (1885)

Founded by A.O. Hume with support from Dadabhai Naoroji, W.C. Bonnerjee, and others.
Initially aimed at creating a platform for dialogue between educated Indians and the British government.

Demands of the Moderates

Reduction in taxes.
Increased representation of Indians in legislative councils.
Creation of economic opportunities for Indians.

The early phase of the INC was marked by constitutional methods like petitions and resolutions.

Partition of Bengal (1905) and Swadeshi Movement

Partition of Bengal

Lord Curzon divided Bengal on communal lines, claiming administrative efficiency.
The partition led to widespread protests across India.

Swadeshi Movement

Objectives:

Boycott of British goods.
Promotion of indigenous industries and Khadi.

Impact:

Strengthened national identity.
Establishment of institutions like the Bengal National College.
Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai spearheaded the movement.

Revolutionary Activities and the Role of Extremists

The split in the INC at Surat in 1907 led to the rise of Extremists.

Revolutionary Movements

Ghadar Party (1913): Aimed at armed rebellion against British rule.
Activities:

Bombing attempts by figures like Khudiram Bose.
Assassination of officials by revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh.

Rowlatt Act (1919) and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Rowlatt Act

Empowered the British government to imprison Indians without trial.
Led to widespread protests.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

General Dyer ordered firing on a peaceful gathering in Amritsar, killing hundreds.
Marked a turning point in Indian nationalism.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

Led by Mahatma Gandhi, the movement aimed at peaceful resistance.

Key Features

Boycott of British goods, schools, and courts.
Promotion of Khadi and self-reliance.

Chauri Chaura Incident

Violence erupted in Chauri Chaura, leading Gandhi to suspend the movement.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)

Launched by Gandhi with the Dandi March to protest the salt tax.